Table of Contents & Sample Entry for
Ancient Egyptian Animals
A Research Report for a Production
Submitted as a Portfolio for Review
See also Print Advertising & Other Graphic Art for some of the accompanying illustrations.
© 1996 D.D.
Table of Contents
1. CORALS: Red Precious Coral etc.
2. MOLLUSKS
2A. SEASHELLS: Oysters (The Common European Oyster, The Great Pearl Oyster, etc.), Cowries (The Panther Cowry etc.), Conch Shells, and Murex Shells (The Spiny Dye Murex etc.)
2B. SNAILS: Swamp Snails, Land Snails, and Slugs
3. ANNELIDS
3A. EARTH WORMS
3B. SWAMP WORMS
3C. LEECHES: The Horse Leech and The Nile Leech
4. ARTHROPODS
4A. SCORPIONS: The Sahara Scorpion etc.
4B. SPIDERS: Fishing Spiders, Web Spiders, etc.
4C. "SCINIPHS": Ticks, Lice, Gnats, or Fleas?
4D. MAYFLIES
4E. DRAGONFLIES AND DAMSELFLIES
4F. LOCUSTS: The Desert Locust
4G. AQUATIC BUGS: Water Striders, Water Measurers, Water Treaders, Water Boatmen, Backswimmers, and Water-Scorpions
4H. SCALE INSECTS: Tamarisk Manna Scales
4I. ANTLIONS
4J. ALDERFLIES, DOBSONFLIES, AND FISHFLIES
4K. AQUATIC BEETLES: Predaceous Diving Beetles, Whirligig Beetles, and Water Scavenger Beetles
4L. SCARAB BEETLES: The Sacred Scarab
4M. CADDISFLIES AND CADDISWORMS
4N. MOTHS AND CATERPILLARS
4O. AQUATIC FLIES: Crane Flies, Mosquitoes, Punkies ("No-See-Ums"), Midges, and Black Flies
4P. FILTH FLIES: The House Fly, The Stable Fly, etc.
4Q. ANTS
4R. HORNETS
4S. HONEY BEES: The African Honey Bee
5. BICHIRS: The Nile Bichir
6. EELS: The European Eel
7. MORMYRIDS ETC.: The Electric "Eel" (Gymnarchus), The Playful Nile Fish (Gnathonemus), and Elephant-Trunk Fish (Campylomormyrus, including The Oxyrhynchus Fish)
8. TIGERFISH: The Nile-Dog
9. DANIOS
10. BARBS
11. CATFISH: The Electric Catfish and Upside-Down Catfish
12. PERCH: The Nile Perch
13. MOUTH-BREEDERS: The Egyptian Mouth-Breeder (Haplochromis) and The Nile Mouth-Breeder (Tilapia, or Chromis)
14. MULLETS: The Golden-Grey Mullet
15. PUFFERFISH: The Nile Pufferfish (The Fahak)
16. FROGS: The Marsh Frog (akin to The Israeli Laughing Frog)
17. TURTLES AND TORTOISES: A Nile Soft-Shelled Turtle, The Little Egyptian Tortoise, and The Spur-Thighed Mediterranean Tortoise
18. LIZARDS
18A. GECKOS: The Common Gecko, The House Gecko, and Other Desert Geckos
18B. AGAMAS: The Desert Agama and The Egyptian Spiny-Tailed Lizard
18C. CHAMELEONS: The European Chameleon and The African Chameleon
18D. SKINKS: The Common Skink etc.
18E. MONITORS: The Nile Monitor and The Desert Monitor
19. SNAKES
19A. BOAS: The Egyptian Sand Boa
19B. COBRAS: The Egyptian Cobra (An "Asp")
19C. VIPERS: The Horned Desert Viper (A Sidewinder), The Avicenna Viper, and The Pale Carpet Viper
20. CROCODILES: The Nile Crocodile
21. OSTRICHES: The Ostrich
22. PELICANS, CORMORANTS, ETC.
22A. PELICANS: The Eastern White Pelican
22B. CORMORANTS: The Common Cormorant
23. HERONS, STORKS, IBISES, ETC.
23A. HERONS: The Common (Great Gray) Heron, The Squacco Heron, and The Black-Crowned Night Heron
23B. EGRETS: The Cattle Egret and The Little Egret
23C. STORKS: The White Stork
23D. IBISES: The Sacred Ibis and The Glossy Ibis
23E. SPOONBILLS: The Spoonbill
24. WATERFOWL
24A. GEESE: The White-Fronted Goose, The Greylag Goose, and (less commonly) The Bean Goose and The Red-Breasted Goose
24B. SHELDUCKS: The Egyptian (or Nile) "Goose" and The Ruddy Shelduck
24C. DUCKS: The Pintail, The European Wigeon, and The Common Teal
25. BIRDS OF PREY
25A. KITES: The Egyptian Scavenging Kite (A Black Kite) and The Black-Shouldered Kite
25B. HAWKS: The African Sparrow Hawk and The Longlegged Buzzard
25C. VULTURES: The Egyptian Vulture and The Griffon Vulture
25D. EAGLES: The Short-Toed Eagle
25E. OSPREYS: The Osprey
25F. FALCONS: The Old World Kestrel and The Desert (Peregrine) Falcon
26. FOWL ETC.
26A. PARTRIDGES: The Sand Partridge
26B. QUAIL: The Migratory Quail
26C. GUINEAFOWL: The Helmeted Guineafowl
26D. CHICKENS: The Red Jungle Fowl (and perhaps Domestic Breeds)
27. MOORHENS, COOTS, CRANES, ETC.
27A. MOORHENS: The Common Moorhen
27B. COOTS: The European Coot
27C. CRANES: The Common Crane
27D. BUSTARDS: The Houbara Bustard
28. SANDPIPERS, PLOVERS, GULLS, TERNS, ETC.
28A. SANDPIPERS: The Common Sandpiper
28B. AVOCETS: The Old World Avocet
28C. LAPWINGS AND PLOVERS: The (European) Lapwing, The Spur-Winged Plover, The White-Tailed Plover, and The Sociable Plover
28D. PAINTED SNIPES: The African Painted Snipe
28E. CROCODILE BIRDS: The Egyptian "Plover"
28F. GULLS: The Herring Gull, The Common Gull, The Little Gull, etc.
28G. TERNS: The Gull-Billed Tern, The Whiskered Tern, The Common Tern, etc.
29. PIGEONS, DOVES, ETC.
29A. PIGEONS AND DOVES: The Rockdove, Domestic Pigeons, and The Turtle Dove
29B. SANDGROUSE: The Spotted Sandgrouse
30. OWLS
30A. BARN OWLS: The Barn Owl
30B. TYPICAL OWLS: The Little Owl and The Eagle Owl
31. NIGHTHAWKS ETC.: The Egyptian Nightjar
32. SWIFTS ETC.: The Pallid Swift
33. KINGFISHERS ETC.
33A. KINGFISHERS: The Lesser Pied Kingfisher and The Common Eurasian Kingfisher
33B. BEE-EATERS: The Little Green Bee-Eater and The Blue-Cheeked Bee-Eater
33C. HOOPOES: The Hoopoe
34. PERCHING BIRDS (SONGBIRDS ETC.)
34A. LARKS: The Desert Lark, The Bifasciated Lark, and The Crested Lark
34B. SWALLOWS: The Common (Barn) Swallow and The Bank Swallow (The Sand Martin)
34C. BULBULS: The White-Vented Bulbul
34D. SHRIKES: The Great Gray Shrike (The Northern Shrike)
34E. WARBLERS: The Clamorous Reed Warbler, The Spectacled Warbler, The Sardinian Warbler, etc.
34F. BUNTINGS: The Ortolan Bunting
34G. SPARROWS: The House Sparrow
34H. ORIOLES: The Golden Oriole
34I. RAVENS, ROOKS, AND CROWS: The Brown-Necked Raven
35. INSECTIVORES
35A. HEDGEHOGS: The Long-Eared Desert Hedgehog and The Ethiopian Desert Hedgehog
35B. SHREWS: The Lesser White-Toothed Shrew
35C. ELEPHANT-SHREWS: The North African Elephant-Shrew
36. BATS
36A. FRUIT BATS: The Egyptian Fruit Bat
36B. TOMB BATS: Short-Tailed Tomb Bats and Long-Tailed Tomb Bats
37. PRIMATES (NON-HUMAN)
37A. BABOONS: The Sacred (Hamadryas) Baboon and The Anubis Baboon
37B. OTHER MONKEYS: The (Long-Tailed) Grass Monkey (A Guenon)
38. PRIMITIVE CARNIVORES
38A. WEASELS: The North African Banded Weasel
38B. OTTERS: The Eurasian River Otter
38C. GENETS: The Common (Small-Spotted) Genet
38D. MONGOOSES: The Egyptian Mongoose (The Ichneumon)
38E. HYENAS: The Striped Hyena and The Aardwolf
39. CANINES
39A. WOLVES AND "WOLF DOGS": The Egyptian (or Libyan) Gray Wolf and Pariah Dogs (Feral Mutts, like Dingoes)
39B. DOMESTIC DOGS: (Pointer/Hunter) Basenji-types, (sleek) Greyhound/Saluki/Ibizan/Pharaoh Hound-types, (short-legged) Dachshund-types, (small- to mid-sized) Terrier/Pomeranian-types, (large) Mastiff-types, and (mixed-breed) Mongrels
39C. JACKALS: The Golden Jackal and The Black-Backed Jackal
39D. FOXES: The Fennec and The Sand Fox
39E. WILD HUNTING DOGS: The African Wild Dog
40. FELINES
40A. DOMESTIC CATS: Orange Tabbies (Abyssinian- or Mau-/Miw-types)
40B. SMALL TO MEDIUM-SIZED WILD CATS: The African Wild Cat, The Caracal (The Desert "Lynx"), and The Jungle Cat (The Swamp "Lynx")
40C. BIG CATS: The Leopard, The Cheetah, and The Lion
41. ELEPHANTS: The African Elephant
42. SEA-COWS: The Dugong
43. HYRAXES: The Coney (The Abyssinian Rock Hyrax)
44. HORSES AND RHINOCEROS
44A. WILD ASSES: The Nubian Wild Ass
44B. DOMESTIC ASSES: The Donkey
44C. DOMESTIC HORSES: Arabian-type
44D. RHINOCEROS: The African Black Rhinoceros
45. SWINE AND HIPPOPOTAMUSES
45A. WILD SWINE: The Wild Boar
45B. DOMESTIC SWINE: The Domestic Pig
45C. HIPPOPOTAMUSES: The Hippopotamus
46. PRIMITIVE RUMINANTS
46A. CAMELS: The Arabian Camel (including The Dromedary, a riding breed)
46B. GIRAFFES: The Nubian Giraffe
46C. DEER: The Persian Fallow Deer
47. OXEN
47A. WILD BULLS: The North African Aurochs
47B. DOMESTIC CATTLE: Egyptian Longhorn, Shorthorn, and Hornless (Fancy)
48. ANTELOPE
48A. HARTEBEEST: The North African Hartebeest
48B. ORYXES: The Scimitar Oryx, The Arabian Oryx?, and The Addax
48C. GAZELLE: The Dorcas Gazelle
48D. DIBATAGS: The Dibatag
49. GOATS AND SHEEP
49A. DOMESTIC GOATS: Screwhorn-types
49B. WILD GOATS: The Nubian Ibex
49C. WILD SHEEP: The Egyptian Barbary Sheep
49D. DOMESTIC SHEEP: Barki-type (Saharan-type)
50. RODENTS
50A. RATS: The Black Rat
50B. MICE: The House Mouse and The Egyptian and Sinai Spiny Mice
50C. JERBOAS: The Desert Jerboa
50D. PORCUPINES: The Crested Porcupine
51. HARES: The Cape Hare
Crocodiles
Species: The Nile Crocodile
Biology: Related to the dinosaurs (as well as to the birds), the Nile crocodile is the "king of African reptiles".
For most of the day, particularly in the morning and the late afternoon, crocodiles sun themselves onshore. As the temperature rises towards midday, the crocodiles cool themselves by basking with their mouths wide open.
Although they are typically sluggish, crocodiles have "swift feet" (as the ancient Egyptians noted), capable of occasional sprints, probably trotting (apparently only young crocodiles truly gallop). In walking, a crocodile typically raises its body well off the ground, each lower-leg fairly vertical, each upper-leg fairly horizontal. On soft mud, the webbed feet of a crocodile act like snowshoes.
In search of water, crocodiles may travel some distance overland, sometimes wandering into human settlements; and during cold or hot weather, young crocodiles may dug burrows into riverbanks, by taking mouthfuls of dirt out of the bank and shaking them out underwater.
During the midday heat, crocodiles either walk on their legs into the shade or paddle with their legs and slide on their bellies (down well-polished riverbanks) into the water (in whose insulating environment the cold-blooded creatures also seek refuge at night). In particular, although it could be found under willow trees on the ancient riverbank, the Nile crocodile prefers to hide amongst the floating leaves of pondweed in sluggish areas of the river as well as in swamps and other large, shallow bodies of water. Although it generally avoids open water, the Nile crocodile has been known to swim out to sea.
Crocodiles are well adapted to life in the water, with a streamlined body, webbed feet, and a powerful tail for swimming; closable nostrils, for submerging; and nostrils and eyes high atop the head, for ambushing prey.
With stones lying heavy in its belly, just the top of its head breaking the surface of the water, and the length of its body resembling a harmless piece of driftwood, the Nile crocodile is infamous for lying in wait and then ambushing thirsty mammals as they come down to the river to drink. Sometimes stunned by a blow from the crocodile's head or tail, the prey is seized by the reptile's jaws, dragged into the water, and drowned before being eaten. Likewise, large prey seized on land, as on game trails, is typically taken back to the water to be eaten.
Although (as the ancient Egyptians noted) crocodiles have "terrible jaws", which seize their prey effectively, their teeth do not tear food well. Small prey is typically swallowed whole, but the skin and flesh of large prey (after its ears and tail have been bitten off) must be softened before it can be torn into: To do so, the crocodile typically stores the kill in a hollow underwater until it is partially decayed. When ready to eat, the large carcass is again seized by the jaws of the crocodile, which then spins underwater violently lengthwise, tearing the cadaver to pieces, each of which it swallows at the surface with a jerky motion of its head. Note, too, that although they can snap a timber in two, the jaws of a crocodile can be held shut by hand (The musculature is leveraged to close, not open) and that unlike alligators, crocodiles have a relatively narrow snout and a prominent fourth tooth on the lower jaw (which fits into a groove in either side of the upper jaw but remains visible even when the jaws are closed).
Although they fulfill a vital niche in the environment, Nile crocodiles are notoriously aggressive, especially when guarding their young (See below) or when cornered in shrinking pools of water (as during a drought or perhaps as the floodwaters of the Nile receded in the fall). Although "man eating" apparently happens mostly by chance, when people come down to the water, there are isolated reports of crocodiles actually leaving the water to go after people. Most crocodiles, however, feed mainly on fish. Large crocodiles do feed significantly on other vertebrates (primarily antelope but also such species as cattle, giraffes, young hippos, lions, wild dogs, hyenas, porcupines, birds, and turtles); and young crocodiles feed significantly on invertebrates (although larger prey can be taken, by stalking, then pouncing on the victim, the young crocodile then moving its head sideways as it snaps its jaws). Crocodiles also feed on carrion in the water, such as bull hippos that have been killed in fights, the crocodiles often feeding together peaceably.
Crocodiles, however, do not feed on "crocodile birds" — typically the Egyptian "plover" (28E) but sometimes such birds as the spur-winged plover (28C) and the common sandpiper (28A) — which feed on parasitic ticks and insects that they find in between the scales on the tough hide of a crocodile, as it basks in the sun. Reportedly, crocodile birds may even venture into the wide-open mouths of the giant reptiles, for leeches and pieces of meat (The crocodiles have no movable tongue with which to clean their own teeth): While sunbathing, crocodiles are apparently not interested in feeding (Moreover, some waterbirds build their nests near those of crocodiles, where they are indirectly protected but not directly threatened by the mother standing guard). In addition to the "cleaning service" provided by crocodile birds, crocodiles benefit from hearing any warning calls issued by the birds: With such disturbances, the crocodiles immediately slide into the water.
During the mating season, bull crocodiles lift their heads, open their mouths, and let out long, rolling bellows. Full-grown male crocodiles stake-out territories; and although they tolerate females and younger males, they fight rival males, sometimes to the death.
During the dry season, a female Nile crocodile uses her forefeet to dig a pit 8 to 20 inches deep (the sand pushed away by her hindlegs) perhaps 30 feet from the water on a sandy beach; and in it, at night, she lays over 40 eggs, which she then covers with grass or with the soil she had dug-out of the hole. The mother then guards her nest, by lying atop, moving only during periods of extreme heat, to cool herself in nearby shade or to briefly immerse herself in nearby water. During the rainy season (teeming with insects), the young — still within the eggs underground — grunt or squeak loudly enough for their mother to hear them; and she promptly digs them out. At this critical time, the mother will even attack people on land who venture too near (an otherwise uncharacteristic behavior). During their first week or so of life, the foot-long hatchlings (retaining their yolk sacs) closely follow their mother, like ducklings after a mother duck: They greet their mother with grunts; climb onto her head and snout; swim after her if she submerges; yap if they get lost; forage for insects everywhere, even up into trees; and boisterously squeak, grunt, and snap at one another.
Despite the growling, snapping protection of their mother, many of the eggs and hatchlings of the Nile crocodile are eaten by such predators as ants, catfish, soft-shelled turtles, herons, storks, eagles, ospreys, and baboons by day and owls, mongooses, and hyenas at night. The #1 nest-robbers, however, are monitor lizards, which boldly dig-up the eggs (sometimes right under the body of the mother), take them to cover (one by one), break them open, and eat their contents. Although crocodiles sometimes nest close together and although mother crocodiles often protect 2- to 3-week-old young from several nests that have come together (before they go out on their own, under cover), crocodiles occasionally raid each other's nests; and given their cannibalistic habits, growing crocodiles bask or otherwise associate only with others of their own size!
Mortal enemies of adult crocodiles are few but include leopards, lions, and elephants; and hippos will vigorously defend their young against the hungry reptiles.
Living up to a century or more, the Nile crocodile may grow to 20 feet or more long!
Egyptology: "Crocodile" was a given name, presumably implying formidability. Such items as wax toys were shaped like crocodiles, and such a toy was even the subject of a popular story.
The Nile crocodile was "The Aggressor", attacking bathers, women filling waterpots, laundrymen (a very undesirable occupation), herdsmen and their herds drinking or crossing water, survivors of shipwrecks, and anyone else who came down to the otherwise life-giving Nile (along stretches of which barriers were probably erected). Such ever-present threats from crocodiles were "abetted" by magicians.
To appease its hunger for human flesh and to appreciate that — like the sun — it arose out of the waters each morning, the crocodile was worshipped as Sobek — god of the sun, earth, and water — typically depicted wearing the crown of Osiris, adorned with reeds, ostrich feathers, and ram's horns (although the worshippers of Osiris and Horus often deemed this "Rapacious Creature" an ally of their immortal enemy Seth, typically represented by that other denizen of the waters, the hippopotamus). To the dismay of the many who worshipped various fish, those who worshipped the crocodile considered fish "rebellious" and fishing holy! Moreover, as the provider of water, Sobek was the patron god of such oasis-cities as Crocodilopolis, in whose temple pools select crocodiles were worshiped by priests: The lucky reptiles were presented with regular gifts of cakes and honey wine and annual sacrifices of beautiful virgins; they were adorned with such jewelry as pendants of gemstones or gold for their ears and bracelets for their forelegs; and upon their death, these chosen crocodiles were mummified and laid to eternal rest in sacred coffins. Other Egyptians, however, as in Elephantine, despised crocodiles and even ate their flesh!
Finally, the goddess Ammut — with the head of a crocodile, the body of a lionness, and the hindquarters of a hippo — was the Devourer of the Dead, who would eat the heart of any of the deceased judged unworthy for the afterlife (See also the jackal (39C), as Anubis).
Bibliology: Ezekiel mentions (in Hebrew) a great, fearsome "tannim" as living in the rivers of Egypt — probably the Nile crocodile (although sometimes translated as a "dragon"). In several passages (as in Job), the Old Testament mentions a "livyatan", an aquatic leviathan with massive jaws, terrible teeth, close-fitting scales, and sharp claws — probably a crocodile (although sometimes translated as a whale).
After crossing the Mediterranean, the Nile crocodile at one time lived in the coastal waterways of Israel.